The Development of Complex Societies

The Development of Complex Societies Introduction The development of complex societies differs from other societies, not only in the number of differentiated societal parts, but whereas in simpler societies that are basically self-regulating, in decision-making functions of its societal components of which these are not generalized and constant. The term state however contains an internally specialised decision-making subsystem. This subsystem or bureaucracy has the power to mobilise certain resources that are not totally embedded within the various societal components. In this essay I have tried to look at the reason behind the rise of complex societies, using material four different ancient societies that of Mesopotamia, China, The Indus Valley and Egypt in and broken down each state in turn to help define the possible reason for each. Ancient Mesopotamia section In Mesopotamia around 4600 to 3400 millennia B.C. which incorporated the Late Ubaid period and into the Middle Uruk period, a relatively complex political formations had emerged at various different times and places. By the end of the Ubaid period, around the late 5th millennia B.C., three-level settlement hierarchies with indications of two levels of political and economic control in south western Iran and probably elsewhere (Wright 1994) was present. By about 4000 B.C., the earliest Uruk formations had emerged along the irrigated regions of the Lower Mesopotamia, the Euphrates-Tigris river system. Evidence from sites suggest a four level settlement hierarchy, with three levels of political control, this suggests a pattern not feasible without internal administrative specialisation, typical of states. At this point due to the lack of unexcavated Early Uruk sites, there is no evidence from the architecture of public buildings or administrative technology such as seals or sealings to indicate the control apparatus. Geographically major centres appear to be both closely and evenly spaced, without however showing a clearly dominant or primate centre. In contrast to this, in the dry-farmed Upper Mesopotamia during the same period settlement patterns and arte-factual evidence suggests different aspects of emergent complexity. In the north eastern portion of Iraq recent analysis done by Rotham (2002) presents evidence of both domestic and public buildings. From the small centre of Tepe Gawra, seals and sealings showing increasing hierarchy in the production of crafts and exchanges as well as showing period of conflict. Ongoing research in the central portion of Upper Mesopotamia indicates centres like Tell Brak had existed at the same time and appears also to have had specialised administrative buildings. Research only shows at this point three levels of hierarchy. The collective data can suggest that different elements of state organisation were present in different areas early in the Uruk period. From the Middle Uruk period, evidence points to a developed Uruk state with internally specialised control apparatus which is present in many parts of Greater Mesopotamia (Johnson 1987; Wright 1998). The emergence of the Mesopotamian civilisation can be seen in the unique ecological and geographical framework of the alluvial lowlands of the Euphrates and Tigris Rivers around the late 5th and 4th Millennia B.C. The ecology framework gives the emerging Mesopotamian societies important advantages in agricultural productivity and subsistence; this is not seen by contemporary polities at the periphery: the geographical framework presents the Mesopotamian societies with sustainable transportation advantages. These two factors created opportunities for rising Mesopotamian elites who could use trade as an important tool for legitimate control of power and expansion resulting in unequal share of resources. In forming a hypothesis for the growing socio-economic differentiation and urban growth giving rise to complex societies in Mesopotamia in the 4th Millennia B.C. modelling trade pattern growth can provide us with some answers. Trade would have been at first largely internal, focussing on individual southern polities that exploited localised ecological rich niches during the Late Ubaid and Early Uruk period. Middle to Late Uruk periods shows a much stronger pattern of external trade between the growing southern cities and the societies at their periphery. Again those in control of more converted resources gained more prominence. Over time a import-substitution process then amplified the one-sided evolutionary impact on the southern societies and shifting trade patterns. Mesopotamia shows gradualist evolutionary perspective, showing clear lines of continuity and change in presenting the core feature of the rise of complex societies of the Sumerian civilisation. A steady state or evenly paced change is nor seen. Both their long histories for their system of writing and temple complexes are salient comparative points. Social complexity is seen through a gradual emergence of settlement hierarchy indicative of a growing administrative structure and cumulative change in craft specialisation. Ancient China Section Early agriculture, building foundations and burials have been documented in China dating back to around 7th Millennia B.C. belonging to the Peiligang culture, but it is not until the first half of the 2nd Millennia B.C. that there is evidence for the first cities from the Shang civilisation. Though there is no significant visible trace above ground of the Shang cities, city sites can be portrayed of areas around 30 and 40 km2, with foundation ruins of clusters of buildings of various sorts. The clusters would have been densest around the centre, becoming sparser with greater distances between one another as they moved away towards the periphery. The clusters probably performed special functions and only this entire web of clusters formed a functional whole. The term web works well, as the clusters of buildings formed the nodules the invisible lines, served as complementary relationships that interconnected the nodules with one another and the centre as a whole. An-yang and Hsiao-tun are two very important sites showing clusters of buildings each laid out in a recognisable plan. At Hsiao-tun although the general architecture is unimpressive, the houses are surrounded by sacrificial burials of humans and horse chariots, storage pits and bone archives of the royal oracle records: this evidence suggests a palace, ancestral hall and ceremonial area of the house of the Shang dynasty (Shih 1959). Other remains of villages or hamlets of various sizes and sorts often within site of one another are also present. The An-yang web of individual nodular components with Hsiao-tun at its nerve centre projects am image of a single community, an urban settlement with many people with specialised segments all representing the Shang capital. The location of a central city may have been looked upon for a limited period as geomantically favourable. The movement of one site to another dictated by divination. Once the capital was moved away whatever was left behind was then transformed into farming fields. What was important was the city, not the site it sat upon. Movement from site to site was at the kings prerogative, with layout and structuring designed to serve him as the centre of attention. The first cities were developed to serve a number of functions all associated to the emergence of a ruler who possessed extraordinary political powers. Central features such as kingship are vital to our understanding of social complexity in northern China. The king presided over a hierarchy of economy, government and religion with himself at the top and centre. The central city was an effective mechanism at exerting political control over all the other settlements. Cities and towns can be seen as lineages at local levels, each hierarchically organised through the state. The elites hold on the lower classes would have been total, one that was sanctioned by fiction and enforced by might. The transition from the Neolithic Lungshan culture to the Shang civilisation presents a quantum leap in the quality of life for the elite, there is however no obvious change in the technology of food production. It is possible that the Shang used fertilizers or had more effective measures of irrigation. There is evidence of more effective cultivation methods that of the tilling of land by team, the so-called hsieh tien, a phrase often seen in the oracle records (Amano 1959). This can lead to a conclusion that during the Shang period there was the successful organisation of large-scale exploitation of a large group of people by a small group of people from within the same society. This can also be seen as the beginning of an oppressive governmental system. This urban revolution was not based on technology or power of production but on reaps of human toil. Clearly two factors not of significance here like in other archaic states are massive changes in the environment and large-scale waterworks. The success of social complexity is derived from a revolution of social systems, which in turn re-aligned societal segments in regards to food resources; coupled with advances in new weaponry, in particular the horse chariot used an effective tool for any necessary oppressive measures in the emergence of a great civilisation. Ancient Indus society The Urban Phase of the Indus or Harappan civilisation is beginning to be recognised in its own right as a unique complex society. The roots of sedentism and the village farming community can be dated back to around the 7th Millennia B.C. or even earlier. Set in the central Indus Valley on the Kachi Plain at a site called Mehrgarh, the Indus urban revolution that was to follow is seen as being thoroughly Indianized, being structured by environment, ecology and architecture. Whilst other states in the archaic period emerged from a long, slow period of gradual and constant culture modification, that eventually led to an emerging pattern of urbanisation and social complexity; the Harappan civilisation seems to have come about in a very short period of transformation, something in the region of 100-150 years. The Pre-Urban and Urban Phase of the Indus civilisation focuses on two things: items related to subsistence and the expression of style. There is clear signs of social stratification, craft and career specialisation, writing and urbanisation in the urban phase, which are all absent in the pre-urban phase. Great change is also seen in the urban phase with a significant increase in sites, followed by a gap in settlement size. Three major sites come to grow all evenly spaced within the Harappan domain Mohenjo-daro, Ganweriwala and Harappa. Evidence indicates two tiers of Harappan settlement, with regional centres or capitals developing in the urban phase. Most evident during the Urban Phase in many Harappan cities and towns is the clear demarcation of public versus private space. The citadel appears at a number of sites and is set apart from actual living space, whereas possible granaries or warehouses are within public spaces suggesting controlled forms of redistribution. Social differentiation is clearly seen in elite and lower class housing within cities. Successful social complexity in the Mature Harappan presents itself through clear signs of social stratification, craft specialism (which was established in some cities within specific districts), and sophisticated engineering and technology development and maintenance, which is indicative of the growth of civic institutions. Smaller settlements were integrated with the great urban centres. There is evidence for intensification of agriculture which concentrated on barley and wheat. Long distance trade networks were established to the east and west alongside internal commerce. Trade was advanced by the use of the wheel (the bullock cart), and that of the boat, with extensive maritime trading at outposts such as Lothal and Bakalot. Shallow harbours which were located at the estuary of rivers that opened into the sea promoted brisk trade with states like that of Mesopotamia. Social complexity is also increasing evident seen through the rise of literacy and social classes, these are two critical axes on which an evaluation of the growth of the Harappan civilisation can proceed (Possehl, 273, 1990). The growth of writing plays a critical role in the Indus as it had in Mesopotamia. Whilst trade and intense economic processes played a revolutionary role in the success of social complexity in the Harappan civilisation, there is one more institutional setting as referred to by Possehl (1990: 277) that is vital to the success of social complexity in the Indus, it is of the organisation of human ideology. The belief systems of what researcher Robert Redfield had referred to as the Great Tradition, in describing a way of life as a vehicle that enables those who share it to identify with one another as members of a common civilisation (Redfield, 1953, 64). Redfield goes on further to explain in regards to the state that the transformation of folk-society into civilisation through the appearance of development of the idea of reform†¦ by deliberate intention or by design (Redfield, 1953, 113). An important aspect to the growth of the Indus region was in its organisational aspects. The Urban phase of the Harappan civilisation was able to form strong temporary allian ces from the surrounding area based on a unique human ideology. This belief system enabled the Harappan civilisation to sustain a successful way of life throughout the Indus region. Operatives like trade, ideology and other institutional settings become centres of action that can promote social complexity and interconnect processes of change: they can in turn be changed by their own socio-cultural environment. Ancient Egypt Society Egypts history is complex, by the mid 5th Millennia B.C. it appears to be occupied by communities of people living in small functionally similar agricultural communities which appear to be only weakly connected politically and economically. But by around 2500 B.C. Egypt had become an integrated empire whose rulers power was expressed through a complex hierarchical bureaucracy. Egypts early settlements were concentrated along the small dynamic floodplain of the Nile. The Nile flood levels were powerful determents of Egypts cultural history. However this flood plain offered the same approximate natural resources for the whole of Egypts developing complexity, and therefore patterns of cultural change cannot be simply explained in terms of the flood variations of the Nile. Agricultural intensification along the Nile would have it own geometric limits and it wasnt until a full conversion to an agrarian society making use of wheat and barley, and domesticated sheep and goats that were introduced from probably south west Asia that changes took place. These changes have been documented in one of the most important areas of the time that of the Fayyum. Egypt: Origins of Complex Societies Hierakonpolis is an extremely important site as it contains the complete Badarian-Amratian-Gerzean sequence. Settled around the 4th Millennia B.C., it is believed the rapid growth of the community was due to the ecological diversity and the exceptional agricultural potential of the region. A massive population explosion occurred around 3800 to 3400 B.C. Its economy was based on both technology (a major pottery producer for Upper Egypt) and productive cereal agriculture along with the exploitation of livestock. From its size and rich content of some tombs the economy operated in the context of significant social ranking (Hoffman: 182). By 3200 B.C. there is evidence for cobblestone foundations that support a theory of a fortified palace, temple or administrative centre and Hoffman et al have concluded that Hierakonpolis had become the capital of a southern Egyptian state. The development of the Egyptian civilisation can be seen as an essentially internal and uninterrupted process, wit h Hierakonpolis lying at the centre. The Narmer Palette and other important finds at Hierakonpolis clearly suggest a centralised and stratified society. Maadi dated to around 3650 B.C. is another important site. It shows pottery style connections to Syro-Palestine and that of Greater Mesopotamia. Burials show sufficient diversity in contexts to reflect differences in status and emerging social ranking. Its site plans, finds and other evidence point to an organised society that controlled commodity production and exchange, alongside evidence for substantial copper smelting and working. Developing complexity in Pre-dynastic Egypt is seen in a shift with developmental focus now from the south to the north. The Delta was believed to be the critical region in the later Pre-dynastic as the main channel of foreign influence into Egypt and also overland trade routes. Trigger et al (1984) notes that the important changes that took place in Predynastic Egypt were the evolution of ritual systems and the expanded lines of political authority transformations. These changes are though having a dramatic impact may fail to survive in the archaeological record. Many scholars such as Schulman or Wilding challenge the theory that a military conquest by southern rulers unified the Egyptian state as the Narmer Palette commemorates. It is now thought that the unification process occurred around 3100 B.C. and was formed successfully on a complex hierarchical social and political institution which was supported by a powerful economy with major interests in international commerce and politics. The success of Egypt lies in its centralisation of its early political systems, despite it being the least urbanised. Agricultural productivity was still closely dependent on the Nile flood Levels; but the socio-political evolution was a complex interweaving web, incorporating ecological uniformity and it exploited the transport potential of the Nile effectively. Old Kingdom settlement patterns play an important part to the understanding of emerging social complexity it can be seen as the disintegration of central authority and the rise of semi autonomous families in the provinces (Kemp 101). By the Late Old Kingdom control of local affairs once controlled by the Pharaohs overseer now began to come from provincial governors or monarchs. There can be seen a slow but continuous expansion and diversity of society with provincial administrative institutions helping to grow its complexity. The cultural history of Egypt cannot simply be explained in ecological or economic terms, these do play an import part, what is deeply rooted in Egypts success is its rise in Ideology. The Idea of divine kingship, where the whole structure of both state religious and political institutions are all derived from the very notion that the Pharaohs authority and so the states was divine in origin. Conclusion The emergence of complex societies is an enduring focus for archaeologists. Identifying when and under what circumstances a political transformation has occurred combined with in some cases evaluating competing ideas explaining the origins of states themselves. Research itself has proven difficult, in part because the process is not easy to understand with limited archaeological evidence, but also as it is not a unitary and rapid process.

Sales Project Report on Wall”S

WALL'S Introduction: Wall’s was bought by Mac fisheries in 1920 – who then sold Wall’s to Lever Brothers in 1922. In 1922 by the 1950s, wartime rationing produced a big appetite for ice cream – sales reached ? 46 million by 1959 and Wall’s opened a large ice cream factory in Gloucester. Supermarkets began to stock ice creams in addition to small high street shops. Market research in the 1970s showed that practically everyone loved ice cream. Wall’s ice cream started production. Wall’s ice cream introduced in 1995 in Pakistan under unilever brand.Unilever is one of the biggest brands in Pakistan and 56 other brands are registered under unilever brand. â€Å"Meeting the everyday needs of people everywhere†. It is the world number 1 in ice-cream, margarine, and tea-based beverages; also in personal wash, prestige fragrances and deodorants. Unilever's packaged foods business is the world's third largest after Nestle and Kraft. Yet a t the same time, the group has pruned its portfolio by 75%, disposing of some regional products and rebranding others in order to concentrate on a smaller roster of global power brands.Advertising Age estimated global measured advertising expenditure of $3. 5bn in 2004 making Unilever the worlds number 3 advertisers. ?Founded 1930 ?Employees 350,000 ?Sales $25. 3 Billion ?Profits $982 Million ?Headquarters London, England and Rotterdam the Netherlands ? 3d-largest company in Britain ?World’s largest margarine producer ?World’s largest soap and detergent maker ?World’s largest maker of packaged tea ?World’s largest ice cream maker ?World’s 3rd-largest advertiser ?World’s 16th –largest industrial company ?Rank World’s largest consumer products companyUnilever is one of the world's leading food companies. â€Å"Our passion for understanding what people want and need from their food – and what they love about it – ma kes our brands a popular choice†. In the late 19th century the businesses that would later become Unilever were among the most philanthropic of their time. They set up projects to improve the lot of their workers and created products with a positive social impact, making hygiene and personal care commonplace and improving nutrition through adding vitamins to foods that were already daily staples.The decade starts with the launch of Path to Growth, a five-year strategic plan, and in 2004 further sharpens its focus on the needs of 21st century-consumers with its Vitality mission. Ice cream is made from milk, fat and sugar. These are cooled as they are mixed, then whipped to create a light, airy texture. Flavourings, fruit or chocolate are added then the whole mixture is frozen again before packaging. Walls have been continuously adding new products to its range. As a result Walls has registered a significant increase in its sale volume during the last ten years in Pakistan. Miss ion Statement Unilever’s mission is to add vitality to life. We meet everyday needs for nutrition; hygiene and personal care with brands that help people feel good, look good and get more out of life. † Wall's Polka Acquisition In 1994 Lever Brothers Pakistan tried to acquire Polka Ice Cream for Rs 600 million. Polka refused the bid, demanding instead Rs. 1 billion. One year after the launch of Wall's Ice Cream by Lever Brothers in 1995, Polka approached Wall's with an offer to merge the two companies. In 1998 Polka merged into Walls both combined with one and other. After the merging they are working together for last 7 years.On Polka packaging there is a brand mark of Walls ice cream. Wall’s has a 28% share in the ice cream market; 25% of which comes from the take home range and 64% of the impulse range – the highest in the entire industry. Taste the fun side of life Mention ice cream and most people think of the Heart brand. The brand with the big red h eart logo is behind many much-loved ice cream classics – from indulgent treats like Magnum and Cornetto. Making you happy Few foods are guaranteed to put a smile on people's faces like ice cream. But while ice cream should always be fun, we've an ever-growing range of lower fat, lower sugar products.Heart brand now provides lighter versions for those watching the calories and smaller sizes for smaller appetites, as well old favorites – there's something for everyone Some ice creams are best as an occasional indulgence, but others can be a regular treat, and eaten sensibly, ice cream can be part of a healthy balanced diet. Heart brand is developing products that are lower in fat, sugar-free, lactose-free, as well as low-crab options and those with more nutritional ‘goodies' like calcium and fruit. Key facts †¢ Unilever is the world's biggest ice cream manufacturer, with an annual turnover of â‚ ¬5 billion. Heart brand products are sold in more than 40 coun tries. The Heart brand operates under different names in different markets (Wall's in the UK and most parts of Asia, Algida in Italy, Langnese in Germany, Kibon in Brazil, and Ola in the Netherlands). Ice cream is an impulse buying product it is related to happiness, fun and togetherness. Ice cream is a frozen product made from a combination of milk products and eggs, sugar dextrose corn syrup etc. It was once considered a sophisticated item of food is now becoming increasingly popular among the people.There are small, medium and large manufacturers of ice cream in Pakistan. Walls have divided the ice-cream products into three main categories. 1. impulse item 2. In home 3. bulk pack Impulse Item Impulse items are produce especially for kids and teenagers. KIDS: It includes Rocket, Twister, Bigger Three, and Vanilla cup, Rainbow Berry Dip and Choc Dip which are for kids. SLOGAN: All Action All Wall’s TEENAGERS: It includes jet sport, Kings Kulfa , Mango Kings KulfaVanilla, and Choc Bar, Cornetto, Pop cone,Chocolate Passion, Magnum, and Feast SLOGAN: All Hearts All Walls’. IN HOME:In home ice cream products are especially designed For family and adults which includes liter and half liter packs also Have half and full packs. It includes Tutti Fruity, Cassatta, Kings Kulfa, Mango, Chocolate chip and many more. BULK PACK: These are for dealers and hotels and Wall’s providing in large Or big quantity in the form of big packs. Wall’s deal with Pizza Hut, McDonalds, major shopping centers, stores, vendor. Annual Growth Rate: 13. 37% is annual growth rate of the wall’s company And wall’s ice creams remain the best. SWOT ANALYSIS Strengths: †¢ Strong brand equity. Quality product Larger dealers network Country wide availability †¢ Production under Unilever brand is one of the biggest strength for company †¢ Innovative (using latest technology for the manufacturing of the ice cream and all system is computerized) à ¢â‚¬ ¢ Unique innovative packing Weaknesses: †¢ Perception about the company is that it is specially made for high class consumers. This perception is affecting company image although Wall’s is making ice cream for every class and they have those products which are ranging from 5 to 30 which can be affordable for the poor people. Weather barrier is also the factor which is affecting the production of the ice cream and can be taken as a weakness for the Wall’s †¢ Product price high with respect to the competitor in some flavors Opportunities: †¢ Range of the products can be increased especially for the kids †¢ Kids are the big opportunities for the company †¢ Increase in the population †¢ Unilever brand is the big opportunity for the Wall’s as it is well known internationally Threats: †¢ If any multinational company launch ice-cream product then it will be a big threat for the company but up till now company is not facing any ki nd of threat Selling Techniques: – Let people know you sell ice cream Show customers and passersby that you sell ice cream by displaying POS items such as pavement signs, flags and waste bins outside your store. This may result in further impulse buys, growing your overall business. 2 – Keep your cabinet clean and full Only 50% of intended ice cream purchases result in a sale due to unappealing cabinets. Check your stock regularly and clean and defrost your cabinet to attract more sales and keep running costs down. 3 – Stock the best sellersStock the best selling brands in each of 4 segments – chocolate snacks, cones, adult refreshment and kids – to make it easier for your customers to find what they want 4 – Make your cabinet easy to find Place your cabinet in a high traffic flow area near to the till and ideally amongst other impulse products. 5 – Draw attention to your cabinet Use indoor POS items such as freezer display boards, ba sket labels and cabinet stickers to make your cabinet stand out. 6 – Stock ice cream all your round A third of all ice cream sales are made during the winter months, so stock up now and don’t miss out. Distribution: ne of the competitive advantage of WALL'S is its availabilty, which is ensured by extensive distribution. The distribution of icecream is different from other products. To keep it in a good form it must be chilled at appropriate temprature. For thid purpose deep freezers are used, which are provided by the company. However the running costs are to be paid by the retailer. For this purpose walls gives a margin of 18% to its retailerdistributors, which is distributed over entire channel. Pakistan is divided in three major sections. These are as follows: 1) North ( Islamabad, Peshawar, Northren Areas) 2) Central Central Punjab and Lahore) 3) South ( Sindh and Balochistan) Disribution Channel: Distribution is making the product available but this availablity sh ould ensure that product must be: 1- At right place 2- At right time 3- In right condition WALL'S have a hybrid distribution system. It reaches different customers with different systems. WALL'S is using two types of ditribution channels, both are indirect channels. Producer Distributor Retailer Consumer Retailer|Security forthe freezers|Investment onIce cream products|Board for advertisement|Total investment required| Others|15000|12-15,000|3000|30,000|WALL’S|Nil|12-15,000|Nil|15,000| Promotional Strategies: Promotional strategies of WALL’s ice-cream is consistent. It uses Pull strategy for promoting its product because WALL’s spent a lot on advertising and consumer promotion to build up consumer demand. Promotional Budget One of the hardest marketing decisions facing a company is how much to spend on promotion. How des a company decide on its promotion budget: WALL’s ice-cream uses Objective-and-Task Method to set its budget for promotional activities.T his budgeting method entails (1) defining specific promotion objectives, (2) determining the tasks needed to achieve these objectives, and (3) estimating the cost of performing these tasks. The sum of these costs is the proposed promotion budget. Wall’s determine its specific tasks to achieve its objectives which are defined by the company’s management, to achieve these objectives WALL’s estimates the costs of different tasks, which are to be done to promote its products. 1. Promotional Objectives Promotional objectives of the WALL’s ice-cream are as follows Inform Persuade RemindCompanies inform the people when they don’t know about the product, persuasion takes place when people already know about the product and company forces them to buy the product and when companies is selling enough quantities of a product it reminds consumers about the product to keep the sales at the same level in future. Promotion is important for firms in many ways. It h elps to establish image of product, which the manufacture wants to portray, and also the personality of product. It informs the people, creates awareness and helps in positioning and repositioning of the product.With promotional tools company can tell about the availability of product, company can justify prices or can communicate the features of the product. WALL’S is not promoting its products individually because WALL’S believe that the high quality it is providing through its products are more than sufficient to prove its identity. We believe that now there is a need for WALL’S to promote its products separately as international competition is coming as well. 2. Tasks Selection of different promotional tools advertising and media schedules and what types of message are delivered to the target audience. WALL’s uses Advertising and Sales Promotion. . Cost/Budget Estimated budget of WALL’s of promotion is Rs. 2. 5 million (est. ) Promotional Tools 1. ADVERTISEMENT WALL’S is creating awareness about its new products such as supper Cornetto, Carte DOR for this purpose it is using huge signboards on the major square of the cities and more importantly both the print and electronic media for advertisement and for that it is following AIDA model.  · Awareness The WALL’S uses print and electronic media plus the signboards initially just to create awareness and knowledge about its new product as these days it is giving A lot of adds of both of its newly launched producs Super Cornetto. Interest: As the public gets awareness of the produces of WALL’S the next step is to create interest among the target buyers about the product which is again done through advertisement.  · Desire: The WALL’S create curiosity among the customers and transform that curiosity into the desire of the product.  · Action: Finally to make the customer purchase the product this is the final thing to be done in model. The WALLà ¢â‚¬â„¢S follows a sequential pattern through which it strengthens its newly launched products. Or to put in another way, the concept can be very well understood with the help of the above given building blocks: InformPersuade Remind Companies inform the people when they don’t know about the product, persuasion takes place when people already know about the product and company forces them to buy the product and when companies is selling enough quantities of a product it reminds consumers about the product to keep the sales at the same level in future. Promotion is important for firms in many ways. It helps to establish image of product, which the manufacture wants to portray, and also the personality of product. It informs the people, creates awareness and helps in positioning and repositioning of the product.With promotional tools company can tell about the availability of product, company can justify prices or can communicate the features of the product. WALL’S is no t promoting its products individually because WALL’S believe that the high quality it is providing through its products are more than sufficient to prove its identity. We believe that now there is a need for WALL’S to promote its products separately as international competition is coming as well. The theme of advertisement varies with the product image and positioning. But walls follow the same theme internationally.The advertisements run on TV are made in foreign countries. The objectives of advertising are the three basic ones which include informing, persuading and reminding about different brands of walls. WALL’S have used all sorts of mediums of mass communication and one to one bases. The mediums used in WALL’S promotional activities are:  · TV  · Billboards  · News papers  · Magazines  · Radio  · Banners  · Pamphlets  · Stands in shops  · Shop boards  · Sponsorships of pop stars, actors, models  · Event arrangements  · Bus S top Board Ads  · Fun carnival carried out in different parks such as Racecourse Park 2.SALES PROMOTION WALL’S has been going a number of sales promotion activities like the: 1- Cycling System: WALL’S started its cycling system for awareness but after that its task was modified into doing sales promotions for the company. And also cycling system has proved excellent in terms of sales and promotion. 2- Discount Coupons: WALL’S launches very low price products for the purpose of both market expansion and sales promotion. Like Solo for Rs. 2 and Liter pack for Rs. 45 was also to boost sales. 3- Discounts and Offerings: Wall’s offered 5% discount in off-season. 3. Public RelationsFor strengthening itself in relationship markets WALL’S is not only going for customer satisfaction but also stressing upon building strong public relations. For example, under the umbrella of Unilever, WALL’S has been trying to part in charity activities and also to s tay in front in national and religion events. For instance events like Valentines Day. WALL’S uses such occasions to not only promote its sales but also to build strong public relationships through sponsoring events on this day. Moreover, it has recently started organizing colorful Fun Carnivals too, which is totally a family affair.This is just an instance WALL’S tries to gain maximum of such opportunities. 1. Customers Price discounts Quantity discounts 2. Distributors Shares 50% of the distributors' expenses Off season discounts: 5% 3. Retailers Free freezers to retailers Investment on each retailer: Rs. 22,000 Free freezers’ maintenance 4. Street Vendors Free Trikes To strengthen its relationship with the various public and customers WALL’s sponsors an Art exibition. Hierarchy of Marketing Department (sales force) National/Country marketing (sales) manager ? Zonal sales manager Area/territory sales manager ? Sales officer ?Our Suggestions: REFERENCES 1. www. wallspakistan. com[->0] 2. www. unilever. com[->1] 3. www. yummy. com. pk[->2] 4. www. unilver. co. uk[->3] 5. www. walls. co. uk[->4] 6. www. yahoo. com[->5] 7. www. google. com[->6] ? [->0] – http://www. wallspakistan. com/ [->1] – http://www. unilever. com/ [->2] – http://www. yummy. com. pk/ [->3] – http://www. unilver. co. uk/ [->4] – http://www. walls. co. uk/ [->5] – http://www. yahoo. com/ [->6] – http://www. google. com/

About the US Federal Privacy Act

The Privacy Act of 1974 is intended to protect Americans against invasions of their personal privacy through the misuse of information about them collected and maintained by the federal government agencies. The Privacy Act controls what information can be legally collected and how that information is collected, maintained, used, and disseminated by the agencies in the executive branch of the federal government. Only information stored in a â€Å"system of records† as defined by the Privacy Act are covered. As defined in the Privacy Act, a system of records is â€Å"a group of any records under the control of any agency from which information is retrieved by the name of the individual or by some identifying number, symbol, or other identifying particular assigned to the individual.† According to the U.S. Department of Justice, the Privacy Act can be characterized as an all-encompassing â€Å"code of fair information practices† regulating how the federal executive branch agencies collect, maintain, use, and release Americans’ personal information. However, the Privacy Act’s often vague language and limited history of enforcement make it difficult to understand and apply. In addition, many early legal cases involving Privacy Act questions were decided by district courts and are thus unpublished. The Department of Justice anticipates that further litigation will continue to interpret and solidify the intent and application of the Privacy Act.   Your Rights Under the Privacy Act The Privacy Act guarantees Americans three primary rights. These are: The right to see the records about them held by the government, subject to Privacy Act exemptions;The right to request that the records be changed to ensure that they are accurate, relevant, timely or complete; andThe right to be protected against unwarranted or illegal invasions of their privacy resulting from the collection, maintenance, use, and disclosure of their personal information. Where the Information Comes From It is a rare individual who has managed to keep at least some of their personal information from being stored in a government database. Doing just about anything will get your name and numbers recorded. Here are just few examples: Getting a Social Security cardGetting a paycheckFiling a tax returnRegistering for the draftServing in the militaryApplying for Social Security or other federal benefitsWorking or contracting for the federal government Information You Can Request The Privacy Act does not apply to all government information or agencies. Only executive branch agencies fall under the Privacy Act. In addition, you may only request information or records that can be retrieved by your name, Social Security Number, or some other personal identifier. For example: You cannot request information regarding your participation in a private club or organization unless the agency indexes and can retrieve the information by your name or other personal identifiers. As with the Freedom of Information Act, the agencies can withhold certain information exempted under the Privacy Act. Examples include information concerning national security or criminal investigations. Another commonly used Privacy Act exemption protects records that might identify an agencys source of confidential information. For Example: If you apply for a job in the CIA, you would probably not be allowed to find out the names of people the CIA interviewed in regard to your background. Exemptions and requirements of the Privacy Act are more complicated than those of the Freedom of Information Act. You should seek legal assistance if necessary. How to Request Privacy Information Under the Privacy Act, all U.S. citizens and aliens with legal permanent residence (green card) status are allowed to request personal information held on them. As with Freedom of Information Act requests, each agency handles its own Privacy Act requests. Each agency has a Privacy Act Officer, whose office should be contacted for Privacy Act information requests. The agencies are required to at least tell you whether they have information on you or not. Most federal agencies also have links to their specific Privacy and FOIA Act instructions on their websites. This information will tell you what types of data the agency collects on individuals, why they need it, what they do with it, and how you can get it. While some agencies may allow for Privacy Act requests to be made online, requests can also be made by regular mail. Send a letter addressed to the Privacy Officer or agency head. To speed handling, clearly mark Privacy Act Request on both the letter and the front of the envelope. Heres a sample letter: DatePrivacy Act RequestAgency Privacy or FOIA Officer [or Agency Head]Name of Agency or Component|AddressDear ____________:Under the Freedom of Information Act, 5 U.S.C. subsection 552, and the Privacy Act, 5 U.S.C. subsection 552a, I am requesting access to [identify the information you want in complete detail and state why you believe the agency has the information about you.]If there are any fees for searching or copying these records, please inform me before filling my request. [or, Please send me the records without informing me of the cost unless the fees exceed $______, which I agree to pay.]If you deny any or all of this request, please cite each specific exemption you feel justifies the refusal to release the information and notify me of appeal procedures available to me under the law.[Optionally: If you have any questions about this request, you may contact me by telephone at ______ (home phone) or _______ (office phone).]Sincerely,NameAddress What Will it Cost The Privacy Act allows agencies to charge no more than their costs for copying the information for you. They cannot charge for researching your request. How Long it Will Take? The Privacy Act places no time limits on the agencies to respond to information requests. Most agencies try to respond within 10 working days. If you have not received a reply within a month, send the request again and enclose a copy of your original request. What to Do if the Information is Wrong If you think the information the agency has on you is wrong and should be changed, write a letter addressed to the agency official who sent the information to you. Include the exact changes you think should be made along with any documentation you have that backs up your claim. Agencies have 10 working days to notify you of receipt of your request and to inform you if they need further proof or details of the changes from you. If the agency grants you request, they will inform you of exactly what they will do to amend the records. What to Do if Your Request is Denied If the agency denies your Privacy Act request (either to supply or change information), they will advise you in writing of their appeal process. You can also take your case to federal court and be awarded court costs and attorneys fees if you win.

Who Invented the Floppy Disk Drive

In 1971, IBM introduced the first memory disk, better known today as the floppy disk. It was an 8-inch flexible plastic disk coated with magnetic iron oxide. Computer data was written to and read from the disks surface. The first Shugart floppy held 100 KBs of data. The nickname floppy came from the disks flexibility. A floppy is a circle of magnetic material similar to other kinds of recording tape such as cassette tape, where one or two sides of the disk are used for recording. The disk drive grabs the floppy by its center and spins it like a record inside its housing. The read/write head, much like the head on a tape deck, contacts the surface through an opening in the plastic shell or envelope. The floppy disk was considered a revolutionary device in the history of computers due to its portability, which provided a new and easy physical means of transporting data from computer to computer. Invented by IBM engineers led by Alan Shugart, the first disks were designed for loading microcodes into the controller of the Merlin (IBM 3330) disk pack file, a 100 MB storage device. So, in effect, the first floppies were used to fill another type of data storage device. Additional uses for the floppy were later discovered, making it the hot new program and file storage medium. The 5 1/4-inch Floppy Disk In 1976, the 5 1/4 flexible disk drive and diskette was developed by Alan Shugart for Wang Laboratories. Wang wanted a smaller floppy disk and drive to use with their desktop computers. By 1978, more than 10 manufacturers were producing 5 1/4 floppy drives that stored up to 1.2MB (megabytes) of data. One interesting story about the 5 1/4-inch floppy disk was the way the disk size was decided. Engineers Jim Adkisson and Don Massaro were discussing the size with An Wang of Wang Laboratories. The trio just happened to be at a bar when ​Wang motioned to a drink napkin and stated about that size, which happened to be 5 1/4-inches wide. In 1981, Sony introduced the first 3 1/2 floppy drives and diskettes. These floppies were encased in hard plastic, but the name stayed the same. They stored 400kb of data, and later 720K (double-density) and 1.44MB (high-density). Today, recordable CDs/DVDs, flash drives and cloud drives have since replaced floppies as the primary means of transporting files from one computer to another computer. Working with Floppies The following interview was done with Richard Mateosian, who developed a floppy disk operating system for the first floppies. Mateosian is currently a review editor at IEEE Micro in Berkeley, CA. In his own words: The disks were 8 inches in diameter and had a capacity of 200K. Since they were so large, we divided them into four partitions, each of which we regarded as a separate hardware device -- analogous to a cassette drive (our other main peripheral storage device). We used floppy disks and cassettes mostly as paper tape replacements, but we also appreciated and exploited the random access nature of disks.Our operating system had a set of logical devices (source input, listing output, error output, binary output, etc.) and a mechanism for establishing a correspondence between these and the hardware devices. Our applications programs were versions of HP assemblers, compilers and so forth, modified (by us, with HPs blessing) to use our logical devices for their I/O functions.The rest of the operating system was basically a command monitor. The commands had mainly to do with file manipulation. There were some conditional commands (like IF DISK) for use in batch files. The entire operating sys tem and all of the application programs were in HP 2100 series assembly language.The underlying system software, which we wrote from scratch, was interrupt driven, so we could support simultaneous I/O operations, such as keying in commands while the printer was running or typing ahead of the 10 character per second teletype. The structure of the software evolved from Gary Hornbuckles 1968 paper Multiprocessing Monitor for Small Machines and from PDP8-based systems I worked on at Berkeley Scientific Laboratories (BSL) in the late 1960s. The work at BSL was largely inspired by the late Rudolph Langer, who improved significantly on Hornbuckles model.